Entrepreneurship and Microfinance Impact on the Poor

Entrepreneurship and Microfinance Impact on the Poor Chapter One: Introduction Background Around the world economies have experienced high growth and financial systems have undergone major transformation, a significant number of people especially in the developing countries do not have access to finance. Policy makers have increasingly promoted the use of microfinance as a tool to eradicate poverty and implement financial inclusion strategies. Pakistan being a developing country is no exception to this, having a large number of people that are poor with limited recourse to livelihood. Though limited in its scope, microfinance in Pakistan has been able to bring some of the large number of unbanked people into the banking network and has also helped in improving their socioeconomic condition (SBP ILO, 2009). About 90 % of the people in developing countries lack access to financial services from institutes, either for credit or saving, which further fuels the â€Å"Vicious Cycle of Poverty† in Figure 1. A lack of assess to financial institutions also hinders the ability for entrepreneurs. Microfinance serves as a means to empower the poor and provides a valuable tool to assist economic development process. Pakistan is fourth most populous country in Asia and sixth in the world. Having an average annual growth rate of 2.02 percent the population of the country reached 160 million in 2007 as compared to 139 million in 2002. Two third of the population is living in rural areas and the working age population (15-60 years) is increasing which was 51% in 1998 and 57% in 2008 (SBP, 2008). In 2008, about 24% population is living under the line of poverty which was 34.46% in 2002. There is significant increase in economic growth and improvement in Social Sector Development. Now Pakistan has shifted from Low Human Development group to the category of Medium Human Development (Global Monitoring Report, 2007). Despite all these improvements, poverty is a major issue which every government is combating against. Pakistan is a country with high population growth and increasing ratio of labor force. According to Economic Survey 2007-08, Pakistan has 51.78 million active labor forces while 2.69 million out of this is unemployed. If we look unemployment gender wise, despite of women ratio of population which is 49.6%, ratio in labor force is only 25% (10.08 million out 51 million) of total labor force. Government of Pakistan has taken many steps to increase women participation in labor force, still women ratio is very less to over all labor force and it is not matching to world standards and trends about women participation in business and job opportunities (SBP, 2008). All these facts show potential to work in microfinance to encourage people and specially women to develop their own entrepreneur so that men in general and women specially can contribute a productive part of society to make it a sustainable. To combat unemployment, only big companies or public sector are not enough for job creation but it would be better if people start their own business for making society productive. Microfinance is being recognized by different researchers as an effective tool to fight poverty by providing financial services to those who do not have access to or are neglected by the commercial banks and financial institutions. Microfinance has been successfully implemented by Grameen Bank. Back to 1976, Mohammad Yunus took initiative of lending loans by developing solidarity group of women in Jobra village, Bangladesh. Many MFIs has adopted idea adding with new strategies and now serving poor in effective way. Now Garmeen Model is a successful approach of microfinance. Microfinance is being considered as one of the most essential and an effective driving force for poverty reduction and alleviation. Kashf case attracted me because Kashf believes in a world where financial inclusion is a possibility and where poor women are fully engaged in realizing the economic dreams of their families. Kashaf vision of â€Å"Financial Services for All† posits a miracle for transforming the role of women in society and for making a poverty free world a reality. Statement of Problem Although social entrepreneurship plays great role as looking to the world real and see clearly what is happening, feel responsibility for financially weak people and help them as much as they can. It is also a big challenge to the entrepreneurs and organizations that they should take steps to eliminate unbalance between different levels in society. In other way, this thought encouraged me to choose this problem. I think that empowerment of poor people by microfinance and with combination of micro entrepreneurship is a great idea. You can never help people just giving money. But you can help people giving them job and help to create their small businesses in order to optimize their share of production to the society. All these issues lead to research on this topic that how microfinance is contributing for entrepreneurship in low income communities of developing countries, how sustainable society is evolving as the result of doing own business in low income communities and how Kashf’s way of microfinance is supporting all of this process. Research Objectives To be meaningful, every work must have to formulate the objectives of the study (Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis, Andrian Tronhill, 2007). Although most of research has been done either microfinance or entrepreneurship separately. But in my opinion there is close relationship between microfinance and entrepreneurship. As social entrepreneurship is doing a lot for credit pool of MFIs with social services, micro entrepreneurship can be found in micro enterprise. As per research topic the objective is research on the issue that how do microfinance and entrepreneurship work for poverty alleviation and empowerment of poor. Research Questions The study was conducted with the guidance of the following questions. How microfinance is contributing for entrepreneurship? How do microfinance and entrepreneurship work for reduce poverty, empower poor in Pakistan? How do microfinance entrepreneurship work for sustainable development in Pakistan? Research Methodology The research methodology of this paper will be qualitative. My work is covering two main topics; entrepreneurship and microfinance with discussing three factors; poverty reduction, empowerment of poor and sustainable development. In this paper data collection techniques are used, interviews as primary source and internet, web pages, articles, annual reports, books etc.) as a secondary source. The research type will use deductive and empirical data will analyze by the help of conceptual framework, develop after literature review. Significance of The Study A lot of research is doing on Entrepreneurship and Social Entrepreneurship because it is emerging thread in business. On microfinance and entrepreneurship much research work has been while discussing in Grameen model. For both fields in terms of combining microfinance and entrepreneurship this research will lead a new horizon. It will also give a vision, to Kashf that how they can improve microfinance lending process, and other Microfinance institutions (MFIs) that how they can develop process in more effective way. Further, students, researchers in Microfinance field, NGO’s and Governmental organizations can extend research in this area to address the issue of poverty alleviation and empowerment of poor. Assumptions Limitations The assumption of this research is that all information, written in the reports, news, web page true and can be used fairly. The study does not cover all the aspects that the promotion of microfinance requires. It was difficult to organize interviews at large scale from borrowers due to distance problem between Pakistan and The Netherlands and this can reflect limited information about micro entrepreneurship. I primarily focused on microfinance and entrepreneurship role in reduce poverty and empower people. Organization of Study The thesis will consists of six chapters and will be organized in the following manners: Chapter One: Introduction: Briefly introduces the background information of the study. In addition, it consists of, statement of the problem, research objectives, and research questions to be addressed, significance of the study, research methodology, scope and limitation of the study. Chapter Two: Literature Review: Describe different theories and readers will look on previous research on the research topic. Also, discuss microfinance, its different models and how microfinance contributes in poverty alleviation, and theories about entrepreneurship and social entrepreneurship. Chapter Three: Theoretical Framework and Research Methodology: It will be building a theoretical framework that will use while analyzing empirical data. Chapter Four: Empirical Findings: It will present empirical data collect through borrower’s interviews and Kashf’s administration. Empirical daa is including facts and figure about poverty, unemployment, economy and microfinance. There is also detail information about Kashf Foundation. Chapter Five: Analysis of Data and Interpretation: It will present analysis regarding need of interactive strategy of microfinance and entrepreneurship, social services and intermediation by Kashf and sustainability issue. Chapter Six: Conclusions: Finally findings and conclusions will be put in the light of previous discussions. Chapter Two: Literature Review 2.1 Introduction The extent to which microfinance, entrepreneurship and sustainability are interrelated is dependent on the extent to which it addresses the economic development process. Yunus (1994), claims, â€Å"If we are looking for one single action which will enable the poor to overcome their poverty, I would go for credit. Money is power.† Credit invested in an income-generating enterprise as working capital or for productive assets leads to establishment of a new enterprise or growth of an existing one. Profit from the enterprise provides income, and a general strengthening of income sources. A variety of financial institutions, worldwide, have found ways to make lending to the poor sustainable and to build on the fact that even the poor self-employed repay their loans and seek savings opportunities. The challenge is to build capacity in the financial sector drawing on lessons from international best practices in micro, small enterprises and rural finance. The extent to which microfinance, entrepreneurship and sustainability are interdependent is becoming increasingly recognized by experts in their respective fields of work, associated with economic development. Over 500 million poor people around the world run profitable microenterprises and often cite credit as the primary constraint to business growth (IFC, 2002). Robinson (2002), a prominent expert in the field of microfinance, notes that â€Å"The formal sector has begun to realize that financing the poor can be both economically and socially profitable.† 2.2 What is Microfinance? Poor people are not able to access loans from commercial banks normally because of lack in guarantee and collateral. But there are also many other reasons involved for which commercial banks were not willing to finance poor. These reasons are included that poor have less education, experience and training, high expenses on transactions of small loans and lower rate of profit. This situation resulted in emerging the idea of micro lending and microfinance. Microfinance, therefore, a way to finance people, those have no collateral or any property for guarantee. Microfinance is a way of financing to poor for their business, to alleviate their poverty, empowering them, giving social benefits on sustainable way. Due to microfinance, there are many possibilities have emerged including extending markets, reducing poverty and fostering social change (Agion Morduch, 2005, pp.3). But there is general concept that microfinance is just lending loan to poor but as I mentioned that microfinance is no more only loans but covering the issues of poverty alleviation, putting social impact on poor and educating poor to savings. Therefore, MFIs, today, not only NGOs but serving as a complete banking system. This discussion lead to me that microfinance is a form of financial services for poor to help them for their business activities by giving micro credit. There is no one universal accepted definition of microfinance as different related variables like poverty, lone size, the poor and the poverty line carry different meanings in different countries. Different authors have defined the term in different ways. According to CGAP, Access to financial services puts power into the hands of poor people. Evidence shows that when poor people have financial services, they use their savings or loans to improve their families’ lives in a variety of ways: sending their children to school, buying better medicines and more nutritious food, fixing a leaky roof, meeting social and cultural obligations like paying weddings and funerals, and building income generating potential by investing in business (CGAP 2007). Microfinance has evolved as an economic development approach intended to benefit low-income women and men. The term refers to the provision of financial services to low-income clients, including the self employed (Ledgerwood, 2000, pp.1). While according to ADB (2008) Microfinance is the provision of a broad range of financial services such as deposits, loans, payment services, money transfers, and insurance to poor and low-income households and, their microenterprises. These definitions are elaborating that microfinance is a financial services but designed specifically for poor to improve their lives in sustainable way. 2.2.1 Microfinance Activities Economic activities are based upon sellers and buyers and their capacity. Sellers, before market their product, look at buyer intention and capacity. On the other hand, banking activities depend on both sellers and buyers. Financial institutions/lenders finance both sellers and buyers for their activities and commercial banks invested in projects at large scale while with this, banks invested in consumer finance also. Usually MFIs don’t invest in consumer finance, but give finance only for micro enterprise. MFIs encourage people to improve their standards by doing businesses and earning from them and this is a consistent and sustainable way. In fig (2), microfinance is dedicated only to poor and explicitly for business activities. But with this, there are some indirect impacts of microfinance on the micro borrower which are alleviation of poverty, improvement in healthcare, increase in literacy and other social impacts. These figures are taken from Ledgerwood, 2000. Figure 1: Economic Activity by Commercial Banking Figure 2: Economic Activity by MFIs There are many activities and characteristics are included in microfinance. Some are (Ledgerwood, 2000, pp.1): Small and short term loans Social collateral rather than financial collateral Access to larger amount of loan if repayment performance is positive Search and access the real poor and their business demand Continuous monitoring of business. Higher interest rates on loan due expensive financial transactions and risk factor. Easy way to access finance, therefore not too much paper work, and easy and short procedures. Saving Services and training services to borrower’s development. Literacy training to borrowers so that they can come up with competence to daily business problems and its solutions. Health care, social services and other skill training services to provide borrower a sustainable base for their business development. 2.3 Microfinance A Developmental Tool Due to lack of financial resources in developing countries, people from low income communities while having innovative idea for their business, even as shop keeper or house hold products manufacturer, they can’t implement their ideas. This low economic activity in low income communities due to lack of financial resources lead them to more poverty and poor life standards. Generally financial services cover savings and credit activities and there is same concept about MFIs. But according to Ledgerwood (2000), MFIs work for general financial services with this they provide insurance and payment services to their clients. But important aspect of MFIs is not only financial intermediation but also providing social intermediation and social services to their clients. Social intermediation and social services contain many activities including trainings, management development, and financial literacy activities. Furthermore, many MFIs, arrange get together where experienced people guid e others, where they give useful suggestions, tips and other tactics for their business. Microfinance is providing financial services along with social services. Normally, social services are not applicable in general banking system. So, microfinance is not simply banking system but development tool, combining both financial and social intermediation (Ledgerwood, 2000). 2.3.1 Different Services by MFIs Financial Intermediation The primary objective of MFIs is financial intermediation because without loan/money social intermediations can not work. As prior discussions that poor face barriers to access finance from general financial service institutions. In this regard, MFIs become a bridge to access finance and in result to poverty alleviation, health care and education literacy (Ledgerwood, 2000). MFIs provide many financial services including credit, savings, insurance credit cards, payment services etc. It is not necessary that every MFI should facilitate their customers by all these services but MFIs can facilitate anyone of these services or all. The choice of which financial services to provide and the method of providing these services depend on the objectives of MFI, the demands of its target market and its institutional structure (Ledgerwood 2000, pp.66). Social Intermediations Social intermediations for individual whose social and economic disadvantages place them beyond the frontier of formal finance (Von Pischke 1991). A successful financial intermediation is often accompanied by social intermediation. It covers the issues of group formation, leadership training and cooperative learning, is secondary role of microfinance for borrowers of MFIs. Development in Social capital is a basic ingredient of sustainable development in poor’s life and especially in society. Social intermediation is process of building the human and social capital required by sustainable financial intermediation for poor (Ledgerwood 2000, pp.64). Now question rise, how social capital be acquire and strengthen? Social capital is actually links between clients of a group and multiple groups, and between MFIs and borrowers. These links establish on the basis of strong foundation of trust and cooperation (Agion Morduch, 2005). The ratio of social capital will increase with increase in business activities among members, and financial transaction between lender and borrowers. It is normally developed through group activities but there are other ways to develop it by individually. In group social intermediation, activities perform inside the group with some help from outside to develop institutional capacity and human resource. In group, most of members belong from remote areas, having less literate and experience about business and financial transaction. So from group formation to selecting leader, developing networks and working mutually, MFIs support borrower to deal with these issues. Therefore, these members need training in record keeping, book keeping, accounting, training about business activities and tactics, and negotiation skills (Ledgerwood,2000). Enterprise Development Services Micro finance institutions (MFIs), not all, support to borrowers, either in group or individual in different enterprise development services like marketing, business and accounting training etc. This service can be divided in to two parts, enterprise formation and enterprise transformation. In enterprise formation, MFIs provide technical support to group or individual in start up of business, development and maturing ideas and maturing the skills. During in transformation of enterprise, MFIs arrange trainings for their borrowers, workshops and get together for developing latest skills in their business area (Ledgerwood, 2000). Figure 3: Minimalist and Integrated Approaches to Microfinance (Ledgerwood, 2000, pp.65) Minimalist Approach Integrated Approach One-missing piece Financial and non financial Credit Services Financial Intermediation Working Capital Fixed asset loans Savings Insurance Social Intermediation Group formation Leadership training Cooperative learning Social Services Education Health and Nutrition Literacy training Enterprise Development Service Marketing Business training Production training Social Services Microfinance practitioners define that, poverty can be addressed by financing poor for productive activities which in result comes up to their access to life necessities. But financial lending is only a one tool to poverty alleviation. Poor needs more than microfinance to address the problems of poverty and accessibility to other life needs like food, health, family planning, education, social support network and so on. In Ledgerwood (2000) MFIs serve to their clients with additional social services with financial intermediation. The best way to contact with their clients is in the form of group, that is the easy way to literate them, giving health care and other facilities. So in this way, MFIs would positive effect in the life of poor by offering financial services with supportive services. These supportive services, actually, play important role in sustainable human development and livelihood of the poor (Khan, Rahman, 1998). Social service should not implicate with financial or social intermediation because financial intermediation is primary service providing by MFIs. That means, there should be no additional cut off from loans in account social service but it should be provide by secondary means or by subsidies (Ledgerwood, 2000). 2.4 Microfinance Models The term model refers to â€Å"service delivery methods and microfinance products†. There are now nearly 70 million poor people who are getting benefits from 2500 MFIs in over 100 countries by microfinance (Sengupta, Aubuchon (2008). The poor’s conditions are different in different countries in world. These conditions are related to social, ideological and political issues (Weiss, Montgomery, 2004). Therefore, there are some distinctive differences between approaches and motive of microfinance. I will see briefly two approaches, which is very famous Grameen Model, originated from Bangladesh and other is Banco Sol Model, Bolivia. 2.4.1 Grameen Model In Grameen model, primary unit to whom lending fund is a group of 5 members that organize and apply for loan. In first stage loan is granted for two members to invest in their business. If these two members become successful to repay amount, then four to six weeks later, next two members are granted for loan. Last one member will be eligible for loan if previous two repay loan successfully. Repayment of loan open door for next loan and then go on if all members repay loan successfully. If anyone of group member will default in their loan, whole group will disqualified for further loan. Each group has its own president and secretary to coordinate all activities among their own group and to communicate and coordinate with other groups. Eight groups are then organized at center level, by which a bank officer deal with these all eight groups. This center of eight groups has its own center chief and center group leader (Khan, Rehman, 2007). According Sengupta, Aubuchon (2008), first time, bank granted loan $100 and bank require to repayment of 10 percent amount, at rate of per annum, weekly. This repayment ensures to user for loan security, and also encourages them for savings. Along with five percent of loan deposited in group account for emergency and social need. For example, in case of need of health care of any one member, in case of emergency, this five percent deposit will be use. A unique and innovative approach of group lending is used in Garmeen Model. As Sengupta, Aubuchon (2008) described that group lending have many benefits. First, group usually organize in members who are neighbor to each other, those can understand each other well and recognize their needs. Second, if anyone of group member will not present in group meeting, leader or other member can pay its installment. We can say that there is a kind of mutual understanding between all members. Third, in south Asia generally, and in Bangladesh specially, there are social pressures among members of society with social bindings with them. If one member of group will not pay even one installment, social pressure will be levied from all eight groups on this member and this reduces the risk factor. 2.4.2 Banco Sol Model Grameen model of microfinance emphasize on lending to villagers and keep loan lending on in smaller amount. The other core concept of model is formation of groups and these groups are eligible to take loan, no option of loan for individuals. Idea of progressive lending introduced to lend loan to individuals with group lending (Agion Morduch, 2005, pp.119). In this model after completion of every repayment schedule the amount of loan increased. But other characteristics of Grameen model (Group lending) are included in this method, like targeting to poor, women, group formation, and public payment. No doubt, progressive lending is an extension of group lending but now many MFIs are adopting this approach. In this model of Progressive lending, microlenders are flexible about collateral and lend loan to group with individuals also. This method is very helpful in areas with low population densities or highly diverse population where group forming is not so easy due to different ratio of safe and risky borrowers. In Bolivia, there was different situation when populist regime left government and there was high ratio of unemployment in urban areas. To come to fulfill the need of time, Banco Sol started operations in microfinance with progressive lending. Therefore we can say that microfinance approaches are evolved due to different political, ideological and social conditions. In Weiss Montgomery (2004, pp.3) Microfinance in Latin America developed under quite different conditions. In Bolivia, a collapsing populist regime led to widespread unemployment. Banco Sol, a pioneering microfinance institution in the region, developed to address the problem of urban unemployment and provide credit to the cash-strapped informal sector. The notion of commercial profitability was embraced relatively early in this approach. 2.5 Empowerment Poverty effects not only on individual’s life but also on society as a whole. Poverty is one of the main reasons in cause of less empowerment of poor especially in developing countries. Empowerment is a broad concept to define because there are many elements involve in it. These elements influence by including political, social and power system in the country. Empowerment covers many issues and when there is discussion on empowerment it includes many elements. These elements are, self-strength, control, self-power, self reliance, own choice, life of dignity, fighting for rights, independence, decision making, being free, capability , access to basic human needs etc.(PREM,WB, 2002). Misra (p.3) describes empowerment as a power to the people and self governance. He define that Empowerment builds self-reliance and strength in women, preparing them towards gathering the ability to determine the choice of life. This adds to the command over resources outwit insubordination and signify their social role. Empowerment is about change, choice, and power. It is a process of change by which individuals or groups with little or no power gain the power and ability to make choices that affect their lives. Due to different social, political, economical conditions, we can not define a one definition for empowerment. According to Batliwala (Makombe, 2006, p.52), empowerment mean, take control over material assets, intellectual resources, and ideology. The material assets over which control can exercised may be physical, human, or financial, as land water, forests, people’s bodies and labor, money and access to money. Intellectual resources include ideas and knowledge information. Control over ideology signifies the ability to generate, propagate, sustain, and institutionalize specific sets beliefs, values, attitudes, and behavior-virtually determining how people perceive and function within a given socio-economic and political environment. Empowerment is the expansion of assets and capabilities of poor people to participate in negotiate with, influence, control, and hold accountable institutions that affect their lives. (PREM, WB 2002, p.11) define that A strategy for empowerment is taken at individual, government, civil society and private sector level. Usually these efforts lead to empower people in context of sharing of power, freedom of information, access to resources and health and education services. These strategies normally share four types of elements: First, Access to information, its mean every citizens including poor have direct access to information because information is power. Second, Inclusion/participation, that’s mean there should be opportunities for poor that they can participate in decision making and they should be included in all financial and political policies. Third is accountability, that’s mean officials, public servants, private actors should be accountable not only to some specific institutions but to their citizens for performance. Fourth and last one Local organizational capacity, its mean that people can work together, organize themselves, mobilize and utilize resources and solve problem at community level (PREM, WB (2002). 2.6 Entrepreneurship It is one of the most widely used terms in business, management, economics and other related fields. One of important thing is that entrepreneurship has different meaning for different people, some use it in the meaning of innovation, some use for creativity, risk taking, leadership, and profit maximization or in social context, and some consider it as start up of business, new production methods and many other different meanings. Davidsson, (2004) describes it that entrepreneurship is rich phenomenon which makes it a resourceful field. While defining entrepreneurship, I consider some school of thoughts that have major role to define this field. According to Schumpeter school of thought (Swedburg, 2000), Entrepreneurship is about innovation in organizational process, thinking up new combination, entrepreneurial behavior and motivation of entrepreneurs. While according to Gartner (Thornton, 1999), entrepreneurship is about creation of new organization or new startup, creating values and entrepreneur mean owner-manager. In Krizner’s view, entrepreneurship is searching opportunities and exploiting them so it reflects towards the alertness capability of entrepreneur towards profit opportu Entrepreneurship and Microfinance Impact on the Poor Entrepreneurship and Microfinance Impact on the Poor Chapter One: Introduction Background Around the world economies have experienced high growth and financial systems have undergone major transformation, a significant number of people especially in the developing countries do not have access to finance. Policy makers have increasingly promoted the use of microfinance as a tool to eradicate poverty and implement financial inclusion strategies. Pakistan being a developing country is no exception to this, having a large number of people that are poor with limited recourse to livelihood. Though limited in its scope, microfinance in Pakistan has been able to bring some of the large number of unbanked people into the banking network and has also helped in improving their socioeconomic condition (SBP ILO, 2009). About 90 % of the people in developing countries lack access to financial services from institutes, either for credit or saving, which further fuels the â€Å"Vicious Cycle of Poverty† in Figure 1. A lack of assess to financial institutions also hinders the ability for entrepreneurs. Microfinance serves as a means to empower the poor and provides a valuable tool to assist economic development process. Pakistan is fourth most populous country in Asia and sixth in the world. Having an average annual growth rate of 2.02 percent the population of the country reached 160 million in 2007 as compared to 139 million in 2002. Two third of the population is living in rural areas and the working age population (15-60 years) is increasing which was 51% in 1998 and 57% in 2008 (SBP, 2008). In 2008, about 24% population is living under the line of poverty which was 34.46% in 2002. There is significant increase in economic growth and improvement in Social Sector Development. Now Pakistan has shifted from Low Human Development group to the category of Medium Human Development (Global Monitoring Report, 2007). Despite all these improvements, poverty is a major issue which every government is combating against. Pakistan is a country with high population growth and increasing ratio of labor force. According to Economic Survey 2007-08, Pakistan has 51.78 million active labor forces while 2.69 million out of this is unemployed. If we look unemployment gender wise, despite of women ratio of population which is 49.6%, ratio in labor force is only 25% (10.08 million out 51 million) of total labor force. Government of Pakistan has taken many steps to increase women participation in labor force, still women ratio is very less to over all labor force and it is not matching to world standards and trends about women participation in business and job opportunities (SBP, 2008). All these facts show potential to work in microfinance to encourage people and specially women to develop their own entrepreneur so that men in general and women specially can contribute a productive part of society to make it a sustainable. To combat unemployment, only big companies or public sector are not enough for job creation but it would be better if people start their own business for making society productive. Microfinance is being recognized by different researchers as an effective tool to fight poverty by providing financial services to those who do not have access to or are neglected by the commercial banks and financial institutions. Microfinance has been successfully implemented by Grameen Bank. Back to 1976, Mohammad Yunus took initiative of lending loans by developing solidarity group of women in Jobra village, Bangladesh. Many MFIs has adopted idea adding with new strategies and now serving poor in effective way. Now Garmeen Model is a successful approach of microfinance. Microfinance is being considered as one of the most essential and an effective driving force for poverty reduction and alleviation. Kashf case attracted me because Kashf believes in a world where financial inclusion is a possibility and where poor women are fully engaged in realizing the economic dreams of their families. Kashaf vision of â€Å"Financial Services for All† posits a miracle for transforming the role of women in society and for making a poverty free world a reality. Statement of Problem Although social entrepreneurship plays great role as looking to the world real and see clearly what is happening, feel responsibility for financially weak people and help them as much as they can. It is also a big challenge to the entrepreneurs and organizations that they should take steps to eliminate unbalance between different levels in society. In other way, this thought encouraged me to choose this problem. I think that empowerment of poor people by microfinance and with combination of micro entrepreneurship is a great idea. You can never help people just giving money. But you can help people giving them job and help to create their small businesses in order to optimize their share of production to the society. All these issues lead to research on this topic that how microfinance is contributing for entrepreneurship in low income communities of developing countries, how sustainable society is evolving as the result of doing own business in low income communities and how Kashf’s way of microfinance is supporting all of this process. Research Objectives To be meaningful, every work must have to formulate the objectives of the study (Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis, Andrian Tronhill, 2007). Although most of research has been done either microfinance or entrepreneurship separately. But in my opinion there is close relationship between microfinance and entrepreneurship. As social entrepreneurship is doing a lot for credit pool of MFIs with social services, micro entrepreneurship can be found in micro enterprise. As per research topic the objective is research on the issue that how do microfinance and entrepreneurship work for poverty alleviation and empowerment of poor. Research Questions The study was conducted with the guidance of the following questions. How microfinance is contributing for entrepreneurship? How do microfinance and entrepreneurship work for reduce poverty, empower poor in Pakistan? How do microfinance entrepreneurship work for sustainable development in Pakistan? Research Methodology The research methodology of this paper will be qualitative. My work is covering two main topics; entrepreneurship and microfinance with discussing three factors; poverty reduction, empowerment of poor and sustainable development. In this paper data collection techniques are used, interviews as primary source and internet, web pages, articles, annual reports, books etc.) as a secondary source. The research type will use deductive and empirical data will analyze by the help of conceptual framework, develop after literature review. Significance of The Study A lot of research is doing on Entrepreneurship and Social Entrepreneurship because it is emerging thread in business. On microfinance and entrepreneurship much research work has been while discussing in Grameen model. For both fields in terms of combining microfinance and entrepreneurship this research will lead a new horizon. It will also give a vision, to Kashf that how they can improve microfinance lending process, and other Microfinance institutions (MFIs) that how they can develop process in more effective way. Further, students, researchers in Microfinance field, NGO’s and Governmental organizations can extend research in this area to address the issue of poverty alleviation and empowerment of poor. Assumptions Limitations The assumption of this research is that all information, written in the reports, news, web page true and can be used fairly. The study does not cover all the aspects that the promotion of microfinance requires. It was difficult to organize interviews at large scale from borrowers due to distance problem between Pakistan and The Netherlands and this can reflect limited information about micro entrepreneurship. I primarily focused on microfinance and entrepreneurship role in reduce poverty and empower people. Organization of Study The thesis will consists of six chapters and will be organized in the following manners: Chapter One: Introduction: Briefly introduces the background information of the study. In addition, it consists of, statement of the problem, research objectives, and research questions to be addressed, significance of the study, research methodology, scope and limitation of the study. Chapter Two: Literature Review: Describe different theories and readers will look on previous research on the research topic. Also, discuss microfinance, its different models and how microfinance contributes in poverty alleviation, and theories about entrepreneurship and social entrepreneurship. Chapter Three: Theoretical Framework and Research Methodology: It will be building a theoretical framework that will use while analyzing empirical data. Chapter Four: Empirical Findings: It will present empirical data collect through borrower’s interviews and Kashf’s administration. Empirical daa is including facts and figure about poverty, unemployment, economy and microfinance. There is also detail information about Kashf Foundation. Chapter Five: Analysis of Data and Interpretation: It will present analysis regarding need of interactive strategy of microfinance and entrepreneurship, social services and intermediation by Kashf and sustainability issue. Chapter Six: Conclusions: Finally findings and conclusions will be put in the light of previous discussions. Chapter Two: Literature Review 2.1 Introduction The extent to which microfinance, entrepreneurship and sustainability are interrelated is dependent on the extent to which it addresses the economic development process. Yunus (1994), claims, â€Å"If we are looking for one single action which will enable the poor to overcome their poverty, I would go for credit. Money is power.† Credit invested in an income-generating enterprise as working capital or for productive assets leads to establishment of a new enterprise or growth of an existing one. Profit from the enterprise provides income, and a general strengthening of income sources. A variety of financial institutions, worldwide, have found ways to make lending to the poor sustainable and to build on the fact that even the poor self-employed repay their loans and seek savings opportunities. The challenge is to build capacity in the financial sector drawing on lessons from international best practices in micro, small enterprises and rural finance. The extent to which microfinance, entrepreneurship and sustainability are interdependent is becoming increasingly recognized by experts in their respective fields of work, associated with economic development. Over 500 million poor people around the world run profitable microenterprises and often cite credit as the primary constraint to business growth (IFC, 2002). Robinson (2002), a prominent expert in the field of microfinance, notes that â€Å"The formal sector has begun to realize that financing the poor can be both economically and socially profitable.† 2.2 What is Microfinance? Poor people are not able to access loans from commercial banks normally because of lack in guarantee and collateral. But there are also many other reasons involved for which commercial banks were not willing to finance poor. These reasons are included that poor have less education, experience and training, high expenses on transactions of small loans and lower rate of profit. This situation resulted in emerging the idea of micro lending and microfinance. Microfinance, therefore, a way to finance people, those have no collateral or any property for guarantee. Microfinance is a way of financing to poor for their business, to alleviate their poverty, empowering them, giving social benefits on sustainable way. Due to microfinance, there are many possibilities have emerged including extending markets, reducing poverty and fostering social change (Agion Morduch, 2005, pp.3). But there is general concept that microfinance is just lending loan to poor but as I mentioned that microfinance is no more only loans but covering the issues of poverty alleviation, putting social impact on poor and educating poor to savings. Therefore, MFIs, today, not only NGOs but serving as a complete banking system. This discussion lead to me that microfinance is a form of financial services for poor to help them for their business activities by giving micro credit. There is no one universal accepted definition of microfinance as different related variables like poverty, lone size, the poor and the poverty line carry different meanings in different countries. Different authors have defined the term in different ways. According to CGAP, Access to financial services puts power into the hands of poor people. Evidence shows that when poor people have financial services, they use their savings or loans to improve their families’ lives in a variety of ways: sending their children to school, buying better medicines and more nutritious food, fixing a leaky roof, meeting social and cultural obligations like paying weddings and funerals, and building income generating potential by investing in business (CGAP 2007). Microfinance has evolved as an economic development approach intended to benefit low-income women and men. The term refers to the provision of financial services to low-income clients, including the self employed (Ledgerwood, 2000, pp.1). While according to ADB (2008) Microfinance is the provision of a broad range of financial services such as deposits, loans, payment services, money transfers, and insurance to poor and low-income households and, their microenterprises. These definitions are elaborating that microfinance is a financial services but designed specifically for poor to improve their lives in sustainable way. 2.2.1 Microfinance Activities Economic activities are based upon sellers and buyers and their capacity. Sellers, before market their product, look at buyer intention and capacity. On the other hand, banking activities depend on both sellers and buyers. Financial institutions/lenders finance both sellers and buyers for their activities and commercial banks invested in projects at large scale while with this, banks invested in consumer finance also. Usually MFIs don’t invest in consumer finance, but give finance only for micro enterprise. MFIs encourage people to improve their standards by doing businesses and earning from them and this is a consistent and sustainable way. In fig (2), microfinance is dedicated only to poor and explicitly for business activities. But with this, there are some indirect impacts of microfinance on the micro borrower which are alleviation of poverty, improvement in healthcare, increase in literacy and other social impacts. These figures are taken from Ledgerwood, 2000. Figure 1: Economic Activity by Commercial Banking Figure 2: Economic Activity by MFIs There are many activities and characteristics are included in microfinance. Some are (Ledgerwood, 2000, pp.1): Small and short term loans Social collateral rather than financial collateral Access to larger amount of loan if repayment performance is positive Search and access the real poor and their business demand Continuous monitoring of business. Higher interest rates on loan due expensive financial transactions and risk factor. Easy way to access finance, therefore not too much paper work, and easy and short procedures. Saving Services and training services to borrower’s development. Literacy training to borrowers so that they can come up with competence to daily business problems and its solutions. Health care, social services and other skill training services to provide borrower a sustainable base for their business development. 2.3 Microfinance A Developmental Tool Due to lack of financial resources in developing countries, people from low income communities while having innovative idea for their business, even as shop keeper or house hold products manufacturer, they can’t implement their ideas. This low economic activity in low income communities due to lack of financial resources lead them to more poverty and poor life standards. Generally financial services cover savings and credit activities and there is same concept about MFIs. But according to Ledgerwood (2000), MFIs work for general financial services with this they provide insurance and payment services to their clients. But important aspect of MFIs is not only financial intermediation but also providing social intermediation and social services to their clients. Social intermediation and social services contain many activities including trainings, management development, and financial literacy activities. Furthermore, many MFIs, arrange get together where experienced people guid e others, where they give useful suggestions, tips and other tactics for their business. Microfinance is providing financial services along with social services. Normally, social services are not applicable in general banking system. So, microfinance is not simply banking system but development tool, combining both financial and social intermediation (Ledgerwood, 2000). 2.3.1 Different Services by MFIs Financial Intermediation The primary objective of MFIs is financial intermediation because without loan/money social intermediations can not work. As prior discussions that poor face barriers to access finance from general financial service institutions. In this regard, MFIs become a bridge to access finance and in result to poverty alleviation, health care and education literacy (Ledgerwood, 2000). MFIs provide many financial services including credit, savings, insurance credit cards, payment services etc. It is not necessary that every MFI should facilitate their customers by all these services but MFIs can facilitate anyone of these services or all. The choice of which financial services to provide and the method of providing these services depend on the objectives of MFI, the demands of its target market and its institutional structure (Ledgerwood 2000, pp.66). Social Intermediations Social intermediations for individual whose social and economic disadvantages place them beyond the frontier of formal finance (Von Pischke 1991). A successful financial intermediation is often accompanied by social intermediation. It covers the issues of group formation, leadership training and cooperative learning, is secondary role of microfinance for borrowers of MFIs. Development in Social capital is a basic ingredient of sustainable development in poor’s life and especially in society. Social intermediation is process of building the human and social capital required by sustainable financial intermediation for poor (Ledgerwood 2000, pp.64). Now question rise, how social capital be acquire and strengthen? Social capital is actually links between clients of a group and multiple groups, and between MFIs and borrowers. These links establish on the basis of strong foundation of trust and cooperation (Agion Morduch, 2005). The ratio of social capital will increase with increase in business activities among members, and financial transaction between lender and borrowers. It is normally developed through group activities but there are other ways to develop it by individually. In group social intermediation, activities perform inside the group with some help from outside to develop institutional capacity and human resource. In group, most of members belong from remote areas, having less literate and experience about business and financial transaction. So from group formation to selecting leader, developing networks and working mutually, MFIs support borrower to deal with these issues. Therefore, these members need training in record keeping, book keeping, accounting, training about business activities and tactics, and negotiation skills (Ledgerwood,2000). Enterprise Development Services Micro finance institutions (MFIs), not all, support to borrowers, either in group or individual in different enterprise development services like marketing, business and accounting training etc. This service can be divided in to two parts, enterprise formation and enterprise transformation. In enterprise formation, MFIs provide technical support to group or individual in start up of business, development and maturing ideas and maturing the skills. During in transformation of enterprise, MFIs arrange trainings for their borrowers, workshops and get together for developing latest skills in their business area (Ledgerwood, 2000). Figure 3: Minimalist and Integrated Approaches to Microfinance (Ledgerwood, 2000, pp.65) Minimalist Approach Integrated Approach One-missing piece Financial and non financial Credit Services Financial Intermediation Working Capital Fixed asset loans Savings Insurance Social Intermediation Group formation Leadership training Cooperative learning Social Services Education Health and Nutrition Literacy training Enterprise Development Service Marketing Business training Production training Social Services Microfinance practitioners define that, poverty can be addressed by financing poor for productive activities which in result comes up to their access to life necessities. But financial lending is only a one tool to poverty alleviation. Poor needs more than microfinance to address the problems of poverty and accessibility to other life needs like food, health, family planning, education, social support network and so on. In Ledgerwood (2000) MFIs serve to their clients with additional social services with financial intermediation. The best way to contact with their clients is in the form of group, that is the easy way to literate them, giving health care and other facilities. So in this way, MFIs would positive effect in the life of poor by offering financial services with supportive services. These supportive services, actually, play important role in sustainable human development and livelihood of the poor (Khan, Rahman, 1998). Social service should not implicate with financial or social intermediation because financial intermediation is primary service providing by MFIs. That means, there should be no additional cut off from loans in account social service but it should be provide by secondary means or by subsidies (Ledgerwood, 2000). 2.4 Microfinance Models The term model refers to â€Å"service delivery methods and microfinance products†. There are now nearly 70 million poor people who are getting benefits from 2500 MFIs in over 100 countries by microfinance (Sengupta, Aubuchon (2008). The poor’s conditions are different in different countries in world. These conditions are related to social, ideological and political issues (Weiss, Montgomery, 2004). Therefore, there are some distinctive differences between approaches and motive of microfinance. I will see briefly two approaches, which is very famous Grameen Model, originated from Bangladesh and other is Banco Sol Model, Bolivia. 2.4.1 Grameen Model In Grameen model, primary unit to whom lending fund is a group of 5 members that organize and apply for loan. In first stage loan is granted for two members to invest in their business. If these two members become successful to repay amount, then four to six weeks later, next two members are granted for loan. Last one member will be eligible for loan if previous two repay loan successfully. Repayment of loan open door for next loan and then go on if all members repay loan successfully. If anyone of group member will default in their loan, whole group will disqualified for further loan. Each group has its own president and secretary to coordinate all activities among their own group and to communicate and coordinate with other groups. Eight groups are then organized at center level, by which a bank officer deal with these all eight groups. This center of eight groups has its own center chief and center group leader (Khan, Rehman, 2007). According Sengupta, Aubuchon (2008), first time, bank granted loan $100 and bank require to repayment of 10 percent amount, at rate of per annum, weekly. This repayment ensures to user for loan security, and also encourages them for savings. Along with five percent of loan deposited in group account for emergency and social need. For example, in case of need of health care of any one member, in case of emergency, this five percent deposit will be use. A unique and innovative approach of group lending is used in Garmeen Model. As Sengupta, Aubuchon (2008) described that group lending have many benefits. First, group usually organize in members who are neighbor to each other, those can understand each other well and recognize their needs. Second, if anyone of group member will not present in group meeting, leader or other member can pay its installment. We can say that there is a kind of mutual understanding between all members. Third, in south Asia generally, and in Bangladesh specially, there are social pressures among members of society with social bindings with them. If one member of group will not pay even one installment, social pressure will be levied from all eight groups on this member and this reduces the risk factor. 2.4.2 Banco Sol Model Grameen model of microfinance emphasize on lending to villagers and keep loan lending on in smaller amount. The other core concept of model is formation of groups and these groups are eligible to take loan, no option of loan for individuals. Idea of progressive lending introduced to lend loan to individuals with group lending (Agion Morduch, 2005, pp.119). In this model after completion of every repayment schedule the amount of loan increased. But other characteristics of Grameen model (Group lending) are included in this method, like targeting to poor, women, group formation, and public payment. No doubt, progressive lending is an extension of group lending but now many MFIs are adopting this approach. In this model of Progressive lending, microlenders are flexible about collateral and lend loan to group with individuals also. This method is very helpful in areas with low population densities or highly diverse population where group forming is not so easy due to different ratio of safe and risky borrowers. In Bolivia, there was different situation when populist regime left government and there was high ratio of unemployment in urban areas. To come to fulfill the need of time, Banco Sol started operations in microfinance with progressive lending. Therefore we can say that microfinance approaches are evolved due to different political, ideological and social conditions. In Weiss Montgomery (2004, pp.3) Microfinance in Latin America developed under quite different conditions. In Bolivia, a collapsing populist regime led to widespread unemployment. Banco Sol, a pioneering microfinance institution in the region, developed to address the problem of urban unemployment and provide credit to the cash-strapped informal sector. The notion of commercial profitability was embraced relatively early in this approach. 2.5 Empowerment Poverty effects not only on individual’s life but also on society as a whole. Poverty is one of the main reasons in cause of less empowerment of poor especially in developing countries. Empowerment is a broad concept to define because there are many elements involve in it. These elements influence by including political, social and power system in the country. Empowerment covers many issues and when there is discussion on empowerment it includes many elements. These elements are, self-strength, control, self-power, self reliance, own choice, life of dignity, fighting for rights, independence, decision making, being free, capability , access to basic human needs etc.(PREM,WB, 2002). Misra (p.3) describes empowerment as a power to the people and self governance. He define that Empowerment builds self-reliance and strength in women, preparing them towards gathering the ability to determine the choice of life. This adds to the command over resources outwit insubordination and signify their social role. Empowerment is about change, choice, and power. It is a process of change by which individuals or groups with little or no power gain the power and ability to make choices that affect their lives. Due to different social, political, economical conditions, we can not define a one definition for empowerment. According to Batliwala (Makombe, 2006, p.52), empowerment mean, take control over material assets, intellectual resources, and ideology. The material assets over which control can exercised may be physical, human, or financial, as land water, forests, people’s bodies and labor, money and access to money. Intellectual resources include ideas and knowledge information. Control over ideology signifies the ability to generate, propagate, sustain, and institutionalize specific sets beliefs, values, attitudes, and behavior-virtually determining how people perceive and function within a given socio-economic and political environment. Empowerment is the expansion of assets and capabilities of poor people to participate in negotiate with, influence, control, and hold accountable institutions that affect their lives. (PREM, WB 2002, p.11) define that A strategy for empowerment is taken at individual, government, civil society and private sector level. Usually these efforts lead to empower people in context of sharing of power, freedom of information, access to resources and health and education services. These strategies normally share four types of elements: First, Access to information, its mean every citizens including poor have direct access to information because information is power. Second, Inclusion/participation, that’s mean there should be opportunities for poor that they can participate in decision making and they should be included in all financial and political policies. Third is accountability, that’s mean officials, public servants, private actors should be accountable not only to some specific institutions but to their citizens for performance. Fourth and last one Local organizational capacity, its mean that people can work together, organize themselves, mobilize and utilize resources and solve problem at community level (PREM, WB (2002). 2.6 Entrepreneurship It is one of the most widely used terms in business, management, economics and other related fields. One of important thing is that entrepreneurship has different meaning for different people, some use it in the meaning of innovation, some use for creativity, risk taking, leadership, and profit maximization or in social context, and some consider it as start up of business, new production methods and many other different meanings. Davidsson, (2004) describes it that entrepreneurship is rich phenomenon which makes it a resourceful field. While defining entrepreneurship, I consider some school of thoughts that have major role to define this field. According to Schumpeter school of thought (Swedburg, 2000), Entrepreneurship is about innovation in organizational process, thinking up new combination, entrepreneurial behavior and motivation of entrepreneurs. While according to Gartner (Thornton, 1999), entrepreneurship is about creation of new organization or new startup, creating values and entrepreneur mean owner-manager. In Krizner’s view, entrepreneurship is searching opportunities and exploiting them so it reflects towards the alertness capability of entrepreneur towards profit opportu

Mother Night, Welcome to the Monkey House, and Harrison Bergeron :: Mother Night Essays

Government vs. Individual in Mother Night, Welcome to the Monkey House, and Harrison Bergeron Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. has made important contributions to the development of the 20th century American novel. His influences are felt in modern social satire, as well as nontraditional science fiction. One theme that is recurrent in his work is the common portrayal of government forces as destructive to individuals; to force characters to do evil in the name of good. Kurt Vonegut, Jr. was born November 11, 1922 in Indianapolis, Indiana, the son of an architect. He attended Cornell University in 1940, studying biochemistry, but soon quit because his grades were poor. He worked as a columnist for the Cornell Daily Sun until joining the army in 1942. He was captured by the Germans in 1944 and forced to work in a factory, where he lived through the fire bombing of Dresden. This, and the suicide of his mother in 1944, were the two most influential events in his life. After the war he worked for the Chicago News Bureau and studied anthropology. He has written many novels and one short story collection. His most acclaimed work, Slaughterhouse-Five, is a twisted account of the Dresden bombing. He is still alive and writing. His most recent published work, Timequake, appeared in the December 1997 Playboy Magazine. Mother Night was Vonnegut's third novel and one his few works that contains no elements of science fiction. Though this novel is not one of his most critically acclaimed, it serves as a prime example of Vonnegut's skill as a black humorist and weaver of human absurdity. Mother Night is the story of Howard W. Campbell, Jr, Nazi radio propagandist and American spy. The novel begins and ends in the same spot; a "new jail in old Jerusalem" (Mother Night p. Mother Night, Welcome to the Monkey House, and Harrison Bergeron :: Mother Night Essays Government vs. Individual in Mother Night, Welcome to the Monkey House, and Harrison Bergeron Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. has made important contributions to the development of the 20th century American novel. His influences are felt in modern social satire, as well as nontraditional science fiction. One theme that is recurrent in his work is the common portrayal of government forces as destructive to individuals; to force characters to do evil in the name of good. Kurt Vonegut, Jr. was born November 11, 1922 in Indianapolis, Indiana, the son of an architect. He attended Cornell University in 1940, studying biochemistry, but soon quit because his grades were poor. He worked as a columnist for the Cornell Daily Sun until joining the army in 1942. He was captured by the Germans in 1944 and forced to work in a factory, where he lived through the fire bombing of Dresden. This, and the suicide of his mother in 1944, were the two most influential events in his life. After the war he worked for the Chicago News Bureau and studied anthropology. He has written many novels and one short story collection. His most acclaimed work, Slaughterhouse-Five, is a twisted account of the Dresden bombing. He is still alive and writing. His most recent published work, Timequake, appeared in the December 1997 Playboy Magazine. Mother Night was Vonnegut's third novel and one his few works that contains no elements of science fiction. Though this novel is not one of his most critically acclaimed, it serves as a prime example of Vonnegut's skill as a black humorist and weaver of human absurdity. Mother Night is the story of Howard W. Campbell, Jr, Nazi radio propagandist and American spy. The novel begins and ends in the same spot; a "new jail in old Jerusalem" (Mother Night p.

Ground Water Pollution by Fertilizers

Land Water Pollution by Fertilizers Table of Content Introduction Situation Problem Solution Decrease of the Procedure Chemicals Evaluation Organic Fertilizers Inorganic Fertilizers Decision MentionsIntroductionThis essay is based on the subject â€Å"Ground Water Pollution by Fertilizers† . Furthermore, it is further divided into four different parts that contains state of affairs, job, solution and rating. The initial portion of this considered essay focal points on the current state of affairs of land H2O pollution by fertilisers, and the following portion discusses some serious jobs that people faced presents. The 3rd stage entails of import ways or solutions to undertake this lifting job in an appropriate mode, farther the last portion of this essay discusses the rating of all three stages.SituationThe groundwater taint appears where there is a alteration of groundwater. The alteration implies the tainting by micro-organisms, chemicals, harmful and insecure substances and atoms, which is to boot the indispensable groundwater taint ( Rail, 2000 ) . In malice of the fact that groundwater pollution on occasion happens due to the regular or man-made stuff, the be ginnings that conveying about the groundwater pollution are hardly characteristic or man-made. Truly, natural beginnings are non every bit hurtful as 1s produced by human exercisings may be. Those human exercisings bring about a few noxious and deathful stuffs, and when they touch the surface of the land, they can perforate into the belowground degree, and foul the H2O at that place. The grade that those chemicals contaminate the H2O relies on upon their kinds, the soil conditions that they have polluted ( Bjerg, 2000 ) . At that point, what are the beginnings in charge of the groundwater taint? The principal and important one is concerns. Chemical and other fabrication concerns need to treat and clean the H2O every bit much as possible for that ground they frequently use different sorts of chemicals that increase the land H2O pollution ( Tellam, 2007 ) . Then once more, when they have completed the procedure of managing and cleaning H2O, they neglect to suiting handle the utilised H2O, which is planned to be reused, therefore, the untreated utilised H2O watercourses go into the land and contaminates the groundwater. Furthermore, solid industrial wastes are to boot in charge of the groundwater taint, which can weaken deadly stuffs to groundwater pollution after rains and rainwater leaks underground ( Brebbia, 2014 ) . Furthermore, the agricultural exercisings are an surrogate intent behind groundwater taint, in which the fertilisers and other mixture substances can easy foul the groundwater ( Zobisch, 2006 ) . Persons are at some point in charge of the groundwater pollution, in visible radiation of the fact that they bring legion insecure and harmful substances to the groundwater, and subsequently foul it. These substances are characterized as the groundwater toxicants. In visible radiation of their qualities, they could be separated into point root and non-point 1. The point toxins are the 1s from sewerage pipes or armored combat vehicles ; and the non-point 1s are pesticides and fertilisers, which will efficaciously distribute over legion typical districts ( Thangarajan, 2002 ) .ProblemThere is an issue of groundwater pollution by high N fertiliser. It is revived from the surface, streams underneath the land and in the terminal watercourse to the surface. Generally, difference between the ground water and river or saltwater is that one frequently includes dirt wets and other does non ( Hill, 2010 ) . There is similarly an actuality that groundwater has any longer rhythm term than that of the ocean or river H2O. An single can use submerged for agribusiness, industry and imbibing in some zone, which has less H2O. The important issue with groundwater is that it is influenced by N included in fertiliser and this leads legion persons to decease because they have merely groundwater to imbibe ( Giordano, 2007 ) . Fertilizer is known as a substance that supplies workss addendums like N or P, and this is the best methods for heightening creative activity of merchandise and nutriment quality. Previously, people did non hold unreal compost, evidently ; nevertheless, some of the experts discovered the first synthesis fertiliser in 19th century ( Ramachandra, 2006 ) . From that point, people have enhanced the quality and use of fertiliser and they have two kinds of fertilisers, natural and inorganic, now. Natural compost incorporates regular natural stuffs, so natural one is utile for nature ‘s sphere. In actuality, inorganic manure incorporates high N, which is begun from ammonium. The methodological analysis of doing inorganic manure is called Haber-Bosch procedure and inorganic compost is called manufactured compost. The ground for pollution in groundwater is supposed to nitrogen included in bogus man-made compost ( Pipkin, 2013 ) . In add-on, included nitrogen interaction affects submerged taint. The bulk of the N in the land starts from high N fertiliser nevertheless, some of them are from industrial waste and sewerage. As a regulation, N in fertiliser and other types have typical word pictures. At the point when there are two kinds of N in the land, N get downing from industrial waste and sewerage is effortlessly retained. This implies N from manure can non be assimilated good ; raindrops wash it, and do the submerged pollution ( Komatina, 2004 ) . Despite the fact that there are legion beginnings of N ( both common and anthropogenetic ) that could conceivably motivate the taint of the groundwater with nitrates, the anthropogenetic beginnings are genuinely the 1s that on a regular basis cause the step of nitrate to mount to an insecure degree. Waste stuffs are one of the anthropogenetic beginnings of nitrate befoulment of groundwater ( Pepper, 2011 ) . Numerous beginnings of possible nitrate tainting of groundwater exist, for illustration, â€Å" sites utilize for transportation of human and creature sewerage ; industrial waste identified with nourishment preparing, and some Polynesian offices ; and topographic points where managing and inadvertent autumn of nitrogen-bearing stuff may garner. Septic armored combat vehicles are one of the most critical illustrations of anthropogenetic beginning N befoulment of the groundwater. There are different parts of the universe where they have reported important taint of groundwater from septic armored combat vehicles ( Brebbia, 2014 ) . Ground H2O pollution is usually identified with the thickness of infected models. In to a great extent populated scopes, infected models can talk to a existent local beginning of nitrate to the groundwater. Then once more, in less populated parts infected models do non by and large posture much of a danger to groundwater pollution ( Singhal, 2010 ) . The echt issue by high N fertiliser is submerged taint every bit good as an unnatural conditions alteration, eutrophication and well-being effects. Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( Ch4 ) is greenhouse gasses yet azotic oxide ( N2O ) is besides considered as a nursery gas. At the point when high N fertiliser is put underneath the surface, microscopic beings in dirt deteriorate N and produce azotic oxide. At that point, it goes non yet decided because gas is lighter than dirt ( Mukherjee, 2013 ) . Following echt issue is eutrophication. Eutrophication is phenomena that there is an inordinate sum of addendums in the lake or river and a few kinds of species to develop so good that different species can non populate comfortably. For case, when the nitrate fertiliser watercourses in waterways, it promotes development of small workss on the surface of the watercourse. These workss are on the surface so the workss in the underside of the watercourse can non acquire adequate daytime and make photosynthesis ( Herda, 2013 ) .SolutionThe submerged taint has legion echt issues so an single must avoid H2O taint. There are two attacks to prevent taint. The first is to see whether N fertiliser is genuinely needed or non. This helps persons lessen taint and salvage their resources. The 2nd manner is to works trees so that soil decomposition will non go on ( Bjerg, 2000 ) . Trees change C dioxide into oxide in their photosynthesis and ascribe to ease a unsafe atmospheric devotedness. They hav e to reassess whether high N compost is genuinely an ideal attack to force works development. In the event that they continue using fertilisers at this gait, the Earth will be increasingly harmed ( Chesworth, 2008 ) . To command taint because of these material workss in the zones around them the attach toing steps could be taken with a specific terminal end to construct long-run sustainability as a corporate process, which is entirely adjusted to the concern aims of being productive in the terminal, and procure big market portion. The H2O used as a portion of preparing of stuffs is lessened to an extended grade such that the emanating focal point is constrained to a labeled small volume of H2O and it does non get down impacting larger volume of H2O ( Marinov, 2010 ) .Decrease of the Procedure ChemicalsThe process chemicals make more than 90 to 93 per centum of the taint by different organisations. This likewise cuts down the coevals cost every bit far as the chemicals use. It might be accomplished through recycling different chemicals when procedures are finished. For Example: Acerb sodium carbonate is recouped from the mercerizing and sourcing and is therefore sifted and dialyzed so it might be r eused ( Pepper, 2011 ) . The procedure alteration would include little accommodations in the different techniques utilized amid piecing within petition to do lesser taint and lessens unneeded wastage of H2O. Certain other chemicals can likewise be utilized amid piecing so that recovering those chemicals get to be simple and it in this mode could be utilized as a portion of farther collection processs ( Nair, 2004 ) . Through different alimentary direction undertakings, husbandmans are put to deathing best direction patterns that advance the proficiency of fertiliser usage by fiting supplement supply with merchandise necessities and to minimise alimentary loses. Throughout the old ages, there have been alterations in cultivating patterns to decrease nitrate filtering ( Giordano, 2007 ) . These integrated applications of N fertilisers, which include the best possible steps of N and other works addendums for overpowering harvest growing focused around dirt and works tissue proving. Soil moistness detectors are presently accessible that consider the persistent checking of dirt H2O position in the dirt. Fustigation has ended up more celebrated for its adept use of H2O and addendums, gigantically decreasing run outing and spillover of nitrates ( Chesworth, 2008 ) . Similarly, more late there have been new technological promotion is adopted, for illustration, the distant detection of in-season N position of harvests for auxiliary readying including maize and wheat, and is right off being developed for rock nutrients grown from the land crops and Prunus dulciss. Crop-particular and often even some other algorithms take into consideration exact and spatially variable application of the ideal N rate ( Mukherjee, 2013 ) . Furthermore, promotion is continuously made to concentrate nitrogen disposal zones guided by aeronautical symbolism, picture taking to catch N anxiousness, and detectors to calculate nitrogen application rates while tracking the field. As this new technology gets to be more settled and moderate, its appropriation in different portion of the universe will be loosely acknowledged ( Rail, 2000 ) .EvaluationFertilizers are those chemical compounds that are peculiarly used to increase the growing rate of works and nutrients grown. These are usually connected either through the dirt or by foliar prolonging. They are besides connected to sea-going state of affairss. There are two types of fertilisers organic fertiliser and inorganic fertiliser and they are as follows ;Organic FertilizersOrganic fertilisers are â€Å" normally † happening compounds, which utilize natural process of composting or on a regular basis accessible mineral shops. These fertilisers can take more clip to interrupt down and be assimilated into the dirt and into the workss than inorganic fertiliser ( Pipkin, 2013 ) . On the other manus, the organic fertilisers enhance the well-being and productiveness of dirt and workss, as they present different critical addendums to back up the works growing. The organic foods expand the profusion of dirt life signifiers by giving natural affair and micronutrients to organic entities, for illustration, contagious mycorrhiza, which supports workss in retaining addendums ( Bjerg, 2000 ) .Inorganic Fertil izersInorganic fertilisers are manufactured through complete chemical process, to boot using of course go oning, while synthetically modifying them for illustration concentrated ternary superphosphate. The inorganic manures has important constituents of Phosphorous, Nitrogen, and Potassium quickly accessible for workss without break down like in organic and workss can retain them immediately. Likewise, works could be given definite step of addendums that it needs maintaining in head the terminal end to be solid and less expensive to buy and speedy to use ( Nair, 2004 ) . Largely fertilisers contribute N ( N ) to the Earth and do issue of nitrate taint of H2O and taint of air with nitrate oxide, different oxides of N and base. These gasses help the nursery impact, worldwide warming as their spread outing focal points in the clime and to the annihilation of the stratospheric ozone bed, which secures the Earth from ultraviolet radiation ( Herda, 2013 ) . The manures and animal have created batch of issues of nitrate taint. Greenhouse gas of Azotic oxide ( N2O ) likewise helps the obliteration of the stratospheric ozone when changed over to azotic oxide. N2O is basically created in the life techniques of nitrification and gentrification. To construct the effectivity of N, manure utilizes through alterations, inhibitors of life techniques and in add-on better disposals to vouch expanded nourishment coevals while procuring the natural resources ( Marinov, 2010 ) . While proposed to progress dirts, overexploitation of fertilisers can impact the overall productiveness of harvests in a pessimistic mode. Since most merchandises are suited to a impersonal pH scope, dirt agitation from significant N inputs can equilibrate the expected impacts of fertiliser add-on. Most of the agribusiness experts say that legion countries would profit from application decreases of up to 50 to 60 per centum. China is the universe ‘s top purchaser of fertilisers and it is evaluated that 10 million dozenss of compost used in China ‘s waterways ( Zobisch, 2006 ) . As it was observed due to the extra usage of fertilisers, it increases the groundwater pollution to the extreme degree. It is a premier responsibility of each & A ; every person to take some serious stairss in order to cut down the use of fertilisers to get the better of the job of groundwater pollution every bit much as possible. For that intent, legion ways that can help an person to do proper sc hemes while utilizing different types of fertilisers because it can act upon the productiveness of harvests in both ways optimistic and pessimistic ( Hill, 2010 ) .DecisionTo reason this essay it was found that the fertilisers could be good to heighten the overall productiveness of harvests that will finally help the higher functionary of a state to carry through the demand of their citizens in an appropriate mode. On the other manus, it was noticed that the use of different sorts of fertilisers increase the groundwater pollution that will finally impact the overall environment of a part in a negative mode.MentionsBjerg, P.L. , 2000.Groundwater 2000. CRC Press. Brebbia, C.A. , 2014.Water Pollution XII. WIT Press. Chesworth, W. , 2008.Encyclopedia of Soil Science. Springer Science & A ; Business Media. Giordano, M. , 2007.The Agricultural Groundwater Revolution. CABI. Herda, D.J. , 2013.From Container to Kitchen. New Society Publishers. Hill, M.K. , 2010.Understanding Environmental Pollution. 3rd erectile dysfunction. Cambridge University Press. Komatina, M. , 2004.Medical Geology. Elsevier. Marinov, A.M. , 2010.Water Pollution X. WIT Press. Mukherjee, S. , 2013.Environmental Scenario in India. Routledge. Nair, P.K.R. , 2004.New Vistas in Agroforestry. Springer Science & A ; Business Media. Pepper, I.L. , 2011.Environmental and Pollution Science. 2nd erectile dysfunction. Academic Press. Pipkin, B. , 2013.Geology and the Environment. 7th erectile dysfunction. Cengage Learning. Rail, C.D. , 2000.Groundwater Contamination: Management. CRC Press. Ramachandra, T.V. , 2006.Dirt and Groundwater Pollution from Agricultural Activities. TERI Press. Singhal, B.B.S. , 2010.Applied Hydrogeology of Fractured Rocks. Springer Science & A ; Business Media. Tellam, J.H. , 2007.Urban Groundwater Management and Sustainability. Springer Science & A ; Business Media. Thangarajan, M. , 2002.Sustainable Development and Management of Groundwater Resources in Semi-Arid Regions with Particular Reference to Hard Rocks. CRC Press. Zobisch, M.A. , 2006.Resource Use and Agricultural Sustainability. kassel university imperativeness GmbH.

Overview of the Sri Lankan Civil War

Overview of the Sri Lankan Civil War In the late 20th century, the island nation of Sri Lanka tore itself apart in a brutal civil war. At the most basic level, the conflict arose from the ethnic tension between Sinhalese and Tamil citizens. In reality, though, the causes were much more complex and arose in large part because of Sri Lankas colonial history. Background Great Britain ruled Sri Lanka- then called Ceylon- from 1815 to 1948. When the British arrived, the country was dominated by Sinhalese speakers whose ancestors likely arrived on the island from India in the 500s BCE. Sri Lankan people seem to have been in contact with Tamil speakers from southern India since at least the second century BCE, but migrations of significant numbers of Tamils to the island appear to have taken place later, between the seventh and 11th centuries CE. In 1815, the population of Ceylon numbered about three million predominantly Buddhist Sinhalese and 300,000 mostly Hindu Tamils. The British established huge cash crop plantations on the island, first of coffee, and later of rubber and tea. Colonial officials brought in approximately a million Tamil speakers from India to work as plantation laborers. The British also established schools in the northern, Tamil-majority part of the colony, and preferentially appointed Tamils to bureaucratic positions, angering the Sinhalese majority. This was a common divide-and-rule tactic in European colonies that had troubling results in the post-colonial era in places such as Rwanda and Sudan. Civil War Erupts The British granted Ceylon independence in 1948. The Sinhalese majority immediately began to pass laws that discriminated against Tamils, particularly the Indian Tamils brought to the island by the British. They made Sinhalese the official language, driving Tamils out of the civil service. The Ceylon Citizenship Act of 1948 effectively barred Indian Tamils from holding citizenship, making stateless people out of some 700,000. This was not remedied until 2003, and anger over such measures fueled the bloody rioting that broke out repeatedly in the following years. After decades of increasing ethnic tension, the war began as a low-level insurgency in July 1983. Ethnic riots broke out in Colombo and other cities.  Tamil Tiger insurgents killed 13 army soldiers, prompting violent reprisals against Tamil civilians by their Sinhalese neighbors across the country. Between 2,500 and 3,000 Tamils likely died, and many thousands more fled to Tamil-majority regions. The Tamil Tigers declared the First Eelam War (1983-87) with the aim of creating a separate Tamil state in northern Sri Lanka called Eelam. Much of the fighting was directed initially at other Tamil factions; the Tigers massacred their opponents and consolidated power over the separatist movement by 1986. At the outbreak of the war, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi of India offered to mediate a settlement. However, the Sri Lankan government distrusted her motivations, and it was later shown that her government was arming and training Tamil guerrillas in camps in southern India. Relations between the Sri Lankan government and India deteriorated, as Sri Lankan coast guards seized Indian fishing boats to search for weapons. Over the next few years, violence escalated as the Tamil insurgents used car bombs, suitcase bombs, and landmines against Sinhalese military and civilian targets. The quickly-expanding Sri Lankan army responded by rounding up Tamil youths and torturing and disappearing them. India Intervenes In 1987, Indias Prime Minister, Rajiv Gandhi, decided to directly intervene in the Sri Lankan Civil War by sending peacekeepers. India was concerned about separatism in its own Tamil region, Tamil Nadu, as well as a potential flood of refugees from Sri Lanka. The peacekeepers mission was to disarm militants on both sides, in preparation for peace talks. The Indian peacekeeping force of 100,000 troops not only was unable to quell the conflict, it actually began fighting with the Tamil Tigers. The Tigers refused to disarm, sent female bombers and child soldiers to attack the Indians, and relations escalated into running skirmishes between the peacekeeping troops and the Tamil guerrillas. In May 1990, Sri Lankan President Ranasinghe Premadasa forced India to recall its peacekeepers; 1,200 Indian soldiers had died battling the insurgents. The following year, a female Tamil suicide bomber named Thenmozhi Rajaratnam assassinated Rajiv Gandhi at an election rally. President Premadasa would die in a similar attack in May 1993. Second Eelam War After the peacekeepers withdrew, the Sri Lankan Civil War entered an even bloodier phase, which the Tamil Tigers named the Second Eelam War.  It began when the Tigers seized between 600 and 700 Sinhalese police officers in the Eastern Province on June 11, 1990, in an effort to weaken government control there. The police laid down their weapons and surrendered to the militants after the Tigers promised no harm would come to them. However, the militants took the policemen into the jungle, forced them to kneel, and shot them all dead, one by one. A week later, the Sri Lankan Minister of Defense announced, From now on, it is all out war. The government cut off all shipments of medicine and food to the Tamil stronghold on the Jaffna peninsula  and initiated an intensive aerial bombardment. The Tigers responded with massacres of hundreds of Sinhalese and Muslim villagers. Muslim self-defense units and government troops conducted tit-for-tat massacres in Tamil villages. The government also massacred Sinhalese school children in Sooriyakanda and buried the bodies in a mass grave, because the town was a base for the Sinhala splinter group known as the JVP. In July 1991, 5,000 Tamil Tigers surrounded the governments army base at Elephant Pass, laying siege to it for a month. The pass is a bottleneck leading to the Jaffna Peninsula, a key strategic point in the region. Some 10,000 government troops raised the siege after four weeks, but over 2,000 fighters on both sides had been killed, making this the bloodiest battle in the entire civil war. Although they held this chokepoint, government troops could not capture Jaffna itself despite repeated assaults in 1992-93. Third Eelam War January 1995 saw the Tamil Tigers sign a peace agreement with the new government of President Chandrika Kumaratunga. However, three months later the Tigers planted explosives on two Sri Lankan naval gunboats, destroying the ships and the peace accord. The government responded by declaring a war for peace, in which Air Force jets pounded civilian sites and refugee camps on the Jaffna Peninsula, while ground troops perpetrated a number of massacres against civilians in Tampalakamam, Kumarapuram, and elsewhere. By December 1995, the peninsula was under government control for the first time since the war began. Some 350,000 Tamil refugees and the Tiger guerrillas fled inland to the sparsely populated Vanni region of the Northern Province. The Tamil Tigers responded to the loss of Jaffna in July 1996 by launching an eight-day assault on the town of Mullaitivu, which was protected by 1,400 government troops. Despite air support from the Sri Lankan Air Force, the government position was overrun by the 4,000-strong guerrilla army in a decisive Tiger victory. More than 1,200 of the government soldiers were killed, including about 200 who were doused with gasoline and burned alive after they surrendered; the Tigers lost 332 troops. Another aspect of the war took place simultaneously in the capital of Colombo and other southern cities, where Tiger suicide bombers struck repeatedly in the late 1990s. They hit the Central Bank in Colombo, the Sri Lankan World Trade Centre, and the Temple of the Tooth in Kandy, a shrine housing a relic of the Buddha himself. A suicide bomber tried to assassinate President Chandrika Kumaratunga in December 1999- she survived  but lost her right eye. In April 2000, the Tigers retook Elephant Pass  but were unable to recover the city of Jaffna. Norway began trying to negotiate a settlement, as war-weary Sri Lankans of all ethnic groups looked for a way to end the interminable conflict. The Tamil Tigers declared a unilateral ceasefire in December 2000, leading to hope that the civil war was truly winding down. However, in April 2001, the Tigers rescinded the ceasefire and pushed north on the Jaffna Peninsula once more. A July 2001 Tiger suicide attack on the Bandaranaike International Airport destroyed eight military jets and four airliners, sending Sri Lankas tourism industry into a tailspin. Long Road to Peace The September 11 attacks in the United States  and the subsequent War on Terror  made it more difficult for the Tamil Tigers to get overseas funding and support. The United States also began to offer direct aid to the Sri Lankan government, despite its terrible human rights record over the course of the civil war. Public weariness with the fighting led to President Kumaratungas party losing control of parliament and the election of a new, pro-peace government. Throughout 2002 and 2003, the Sri Lankan government and the Tamil Tigers negotiated various ceasefires and signed a Memorandum of Understanding, again mediated by the Norwegians. The two sides compromised with a federal solution, rather than the Tamils demand for a two-state solution or the governments insistence on a unitary state. Air and ground traffic resumed between Jaffna and the rest of Sri Lanka.   However, on October 31, 2003, the Tigers declared themselves in full control of the north and east regions of the country, prompting the government to declare a state of emergency. Within just over a year, monitors from Norway recorded 300 infractions of the ceasefire by the army and 3,000 by the Tamil Tigers. When the Indian Ocean Tsunami hit Sri Lanka on December 26, 2004, it killed 35,000 people and sparked another disagreement between the Tigers and the government over how to distribute aid in Tiger-held areas. On August 12, 2005, the Tamil Tigers lost much of their remaining cachet with the international community when one of their snipers killed Sri Lankan Foreign Minister Lakshman Kadirgamar, a highly respected ethnic Tamil who was critical of Tiger tactics. Tiger leader Velupillai Prabhakaran warned that his guerrillas would go on the offensive once more in 2006 if the government failed to implement the peace plan. Fighting erupted again, including the bombing of civilian targets such as packed commuter trains and buses in Colombo. The government also began assassinating pro-Tiger journalists and politicians. Massacres against civilians on both sides left thousands dead over the next few years, including 17 charity workers from Frances Action Against Hunger, who were shot down in their office. On September 4, 2006, the army drove the Tamil Tigers from the key coastal city of Sampur. The Tigers retaliated by bombing a naval convoy, killing more than 100 sailors who were on shore leave. After October 2006 peace talks in Geneva, Switzerland, did not produce results, the Sri Lankan government launched a massive offensive in eastern and northern parts of the islands to crush the Tamil Tigers once and for all. The 2007-2009 eastern and northern offensives were extremely bloody, with tens of thousands of civilians caught between the army and Tiger lines. Entire villages were left depopulated and ruined in what a U.N. spokesman termed a bloodbath. As the government troops closed in on the last rebel strongholds, some Tigers blew themselves up. Others were summarily executed by the soldiers after they surrendered, and these war crimes were captured on video. On May 16, 2009, the Sri Lankan government declared victory over the Tamil Tigers. The following day, an official Tiger website conceded that This battle has reached its bitter end. People in Sri Lanka and around the world expressed relief that the devastating conflict had finally ended after 26 years, hideous atrocities on both sides, and some 100,000 deaths. The only question remaining is whether the perpetrators of those atrocities will face trials for their crimes.

Bopomofo Chinese Phonetic System

Bopomofo Chinese Phonetic System Chinese characters can be a major stumbling block for students of Mandarin. There are thousands of characters and the only way to learn their meaning and pronunciation is by rote. Fortunately, there are phonetic systems that aid in the study of Chinese characters. The phonetics are used in textbooks and dictionaries so that students can begin associating sounds and meanings with specific characters. Pinyin The most common phonetic system is Pinyin. It is used to teach Mainland Chinese school children, and it is also widely used by foreigners learning Mandarin as a second language. Pinyin is a Romanization system. It uses the Roman alphabet to represent the sounds of spoken Mandarin. The familiar letters make Pinyin look easy. However, many of the Pinyin pronunciations are quite different from the English alphabet. For example, the Pinyin c is pronounced with a ts sound. Bopomofo Pinyin is certainly not the only phonetic system for Mandarin. There are other Romanization systems, and then there is Zhuyin Fuhao, otherwise known as Bopomofo. Zhuyin Fuhao uses symbols which are based on Chinese characters to represent the sounds of spoken Mandarin. These are the same sounds which are represented by Pinyin, and in fact there is a one-to-one correspondence between Pinyin and Zhuyin Fuhao. The first four symbols of Zhuyin Fuhao are bo po mo fo (pronounced buh puh muh fuh), which gives the common name Bopomofo – sometimes shortened to bopomo. Bopomofo is used in Taiwan to teach school children, and it is also a popular input method for writing Chinese characters on computers and handheld devices such as cell phones. Children’s books and teaching materials in Taiwan almost always have Bopomofo symbols printed next to the Chinese characters. It is also used in dictionaries. Advantages of Bopomofo Bopomofo symbols are based on Chinese characters, and in some cases they are identical. Learning Bopomofo, therefore, gives Mandarin students a head start to reading and writing Chinese. Sometimes students who start learning Mandarin Chinese with Pinyin become too dependent on it, and once characters are introduced they are at a loss.   Another important advantage to Bopomofo is its status as an independent phonetic system. Unlike Pinyin or other Romanization systems, Bopomofo symbols cannot be confused with other pronunciations. The main disadvantage to Romanization is that students often have preconceived ideas about the pronunciation of the Roman alphabet. For example, the Pinyin letter â€Å"q† has a â€Å"ch† sound, and it can take some effort to make this association. On the other hand, the Bopomofo symbol ã„‘ is not associated with any other sound than its Mandarin pronunciation. Computer Input Computer keyboards with Zhuyin Fuhao symbols are available. This makes it fast and efficient to input Chinese characters using a Chinese Character IME (Input Method Editor) like the one included with Windows XP. The Bopomofo input method can be used with or without tone marks. Characters are input by spelling the sound, followed by either the tone mark or the space bar. A list of candidate characters appears. Once a character is selected from this list, another list of commonly used characters may pop up. Only In Taiwan Zhuyin Fuhao was developed in the early 20th century. In the 1950s, Mainland China switched over to Pinyin as its official phonetic system, although some dictionaries from the Mainland still include Zhuyin Fuhao symbols. Taiwan continues to use Bopomofo for teaching school children. Taiwanese teaching material aimed at foreigners usually uses Pinyin, but there are a few publications for adults which use Bopomofo. Zhuyin Fuhao is also used for some of Taiwans Aboriginal languages. Bopomofo and Pinyin Comparison Table Zhuyin Pinyin b p m f d t n l g k h j q x zh ch sh r z c s a o e ai ei ao ou an en ang eng er i u u

Ethical Viewpoints Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ethical Viewpoints - Essay Example This deprivation imposes the same difficulty faced by children raised by a single parent. True marriage provides normal conditions of a normal atmosphere beneficial for the upbringing of children Most arguments additionally stipulate that, same sex marriage just serves to validate and promote the homosexual lifestyle. Gradually, these arguments have profoundly been modifying everyone’s perception and evaluations of behavior. Eventually, the legal system will completely embrace this type of abominable marriage and thus shadow certain basic moral values and cripple public morality. Morally this union is wrong and legal recognition will simply change this moral wrong to a civil right. Eventually, anti-gay activists state that legalizing same sex marriage will force the whole society to accept and the state will have to form laws that punish people especially state employees that express disapproval. This is because marriage affects the whole of society and this new pigment will compel others to betray their consciences. People attracted with the same sex have gradually been coming out of their closet actively demanding that they have the right to legally get married in same sex unions. Today’s generation is very liberal and they are not afraid to express what they feel. Some of the arguments echo the fact that everyone should be given the chance to form a lifelong bond with the partner they choose. They argue that it is their civil right to be recognized just like the same recognition was given to heterosexual relationships so should it be given to homosexuals. The law is for all and thus should not create a gap between people in a second class who will have lesser rights than others. This will be discriminating and thus not right. Arguments reiterate that Homosexuals are human too hand since everyone is born equal and free there should be no reason that should

Airlines fault because of safety violations Research Paper

Airlines fault because of safety violations - Research Paper Example Such factors include safety violation. According to Pollock, (2009) the regulatory body (FAA) has for much times fined many of airlines due to the safety violation. The highest fine ever to be charged by Federal Aviation Administration is $ 10.2 million. The latest incidence that attracted the fine action of FAA involved a Texas-based airline. In the report of year 2012 of FAA, the airline delayed repair of its two MD-80. Such delays posed a safety compromise to the passengers. The Texas-based airline operated with this fault for 58 times in violation of safety and the Federation regulation. According with the FFA, (2010) report, the airline was taxed $ 7.1 million. According with the regulation and policies of FAA, negligence in maintaining the airline with knowledge constitutes a breach of safety regulation. The Texas-based airline had deliberately postponed the maintenance of the airline. By postponing, the service providers were intentionally putting the life of passengers at risk. The report established that the management was aware of the several autopilot problems yet they continued to defer the maintenance. The rules and regulation of FAA were enacted following the injury and death caused by airlines. According to FFA, (2010) most of the faults leads to very fatal accident that claimed life of many citizens. In a research done by Pollock, (2009) most airlines in most cases defer maintenance of the airline in the festive seasons such Christmas where there is a lot of travelling. One example given in the research is MD-80 affiliated to Texas-based airline. In the busy Christmas travel season, the autopilot disconnected many times posing a threat on the passenger traveling. It has been established that most a time is due to negligence and drive to make money in the peak season. For this case, the airline was charged a fine of $ 8 million. More